Mythological Women Essay Example for Free

Mythological Women Essay Attitudes toward women in mythology reflect the attitudes that still exist today around the world. In mythology women always seem to mess up and make mistakes. Women are viewed as incapable in mythology. The attitudes toward women in both Judeo-Christian/Western and Greek mythology are negative. One of the three types of mythology that are going to be discussed about is humanity mythology. In Judeo-Christian/Western humanity mythology, there is the parable of Adam and Eve. In Adam and Eve, God tells them to not eat from the forbidden tree. Eve, the woman, is tempted and ends up disobeying God by eating an apple from the tree that was forbidden. On the other hand, in Greek humanity mythology there is the story of Pandora. Pandora was given a box and was told to never open the box. Curiosity got the best of Pandora and she ended up disobeying by opening the box. In humanity mythology women are portrayed as not being able to follow instructions and obey. The next type of mythology is the animal/plant mythology. In Judeo-Christian/Western animal/plant mythology, you have the parable of Adam and Eve again. In the parable, Adam the man, is given the responsibility to name the animals. While in Greek animal/plant mythology, you have the myth of how spiders came to be. There was a Goddess named Athena who challenged Arachne at weaving. Arachne was the best weaver there. After loosing, Athena turned Arachne into a spider so she would weave webs forever. In animal/plant mythology, women are viewed as incapable to complete tasks and also viewed as jealous. The last type of mythology is hero mythology. In Judeo-Christian/Western hero mythology, you have superhero and trickster schemes. Without a trickster there is no superhero to solve the problem. In the superhero community, almost every superhero is male. On the other hand, in Greek hero mythology you have The Odyssey. In The Odyssey, you have Odysseus who is away for twenty long years. Odysseuss wife has been mourning for his arrival and has remained clean and faithful. In the meantime, Odysseus is sleeping with other women. Hero mythology portrays the dominance of men and their image of strength. Hero mythology also portrays the double standard of  what men expect for women. In conclusion, bad attitudes toward women that are seen in Judeo-Christian/Western and Greek mythology still exist today. In humanity mythology, women are portrayed as incapable of obeying and following instructions. In animal/plant mythology, women are viewed as incapable to complete tasks and also very jealous. In hero mythology, men are seen as the ones with dominance, strength, and superiority and you can see a double standard in the expectations of morality. The attitudes toward women in both Judeo-Christian/Western and Greek mythology are negative.

The Effects Of Transformational Leadership Education Essay

The Effects Of Transformational Leadership Education Essay In recent years, educational leaders have been voicing concerns about higher burnout rates among special education teachers as compared with teachers in general education (Fore, Martin, Bender, 2002). Many factors contribute to burnout in special education. Increased teaching workloads, shrinking school budgets, increasing demands for accountability, and disruptive students are often blamed (Byrne, 1994; Fore et al., 2002). The recession that took place in the United States in 2007 has significantly exacerbated these issues. Teachers, including special educators, must cope with the issues that come from difficult economic times. As budget tightens, teachers have to face layoffs or are being forced to take pay cuts and unpaid furlough days (Oliff Johnson, 2010). They have to worry about providing for themselves and also putting in the time and effort to promote a conductive learning environment for their students. This makes them stressful and reduces their morale to teach to the be st of their capabilities (Reeves, 2010). Furthermore, special education teachers are asked to do more with less than before this includes rising teacher pupil ratios (Center for Public Education, 2010). In special education, this means teachers have to teach students with a broader range of disabilities and grade levels. Moreover, teachers are unable to use as many of the same resources that they used before, and the school supplies, materials, and other resources that have previously been given are slowly being taken back (Center for Public Education, 2010). With the end of the federal stimulus funds that helped prevent severe education cuts, many school districts will face a more stressful budget shortfall in the next few years (Husch, Banton, Cummings, Mazer, Sigritz, 2010). All these problems can make special educators more vulnerable to burnout. Burnout has been defined as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment (Leiter Maslach, 1988, p. 297). Emotional exhaustion refers to the feelings of being drained or used up by the clients (Maslach Jackson, 1981). Emotional exhaustion also is identified as feelings of strain, particularly chronic fatigue resulting from overtaxing work (Hakanen, Bakker, Schaufeli, 2006, p. 498). Teachers who have experienced this sense of emotional exhaustion report feeling dread at the thought of having to put in another day on the job and often put distance between themselves and coworkers and students (Schwab, Jackson, Schuler, 1986, p. 15). This distancing of oneself from the students is the second aspect of burnout, depersonalization (Schwab et al., 1986). Leiter and Maslach (1988) defined depersonalization as developing an unfeeling and callous response toward clients. Depersonalization is also referred to as cynicism, indifferent, or a distant attitude toward work in general and the people with whom one works (Hakanen et al., 2006). The third aspect of burnout is reduced personal accomplishment (Leiter Maslach, 1988). Workers tend to have a negative appraisal of themselves as well as their work with clients (Maslach Jackson, 1981). Teachers who suffer from burnout are unable to function effectively in their jobs, unable to give much of themselves to students, and frequently exhibit negative, cynical, and callous attitudes toward their jobs (Byrne, 1993). A number of studies have shown that teacher burnout may lower student achievement. Teachers who experience job burnout are more likely to criticize students, which in turn reduce students self-efficacy, motivation to learn, completeness of understanding, and creativity (Huberman Vandenberghe, 1999; Maslach Leiter, 1999). Researchers found teachers who experience burnout have reduced motivation, impaired performance, and higher rates for leaving the teachi ng profession (Byrne, 1993; Fore et al., 2002; Schwab et al., 1986). The vital role that supervisors play in affecting teachers propensity towards burnout was observed in research (Russell, Altmaier, Van Velzen, 1987; Sarros Sarros, 1992; Zabel Zabel, 2001). Supportive supervisors are likely to provide positive feedback concerning supervisees skills and abilities, which may make them less vulnerable to burnout. Russell et al. (1987) reported teachers who felt support and received positive feedback from supervisors were less vulnerable to burnout. Zabel and Zabel (2001) showed special education teachers were less likely to experience burnout when they receive more support from administrators, peers, and parents. According to Sarros and Sarros (1992), the importance of supervisor and principal support cannot be underestimated as a critical resource for addressing teacher burnout. Rose (1998) found that incidence of burnout can be reduced by high-quality leader-member exchange relationships. Positive contact with supportive supervisors is also a strong deterrent to the factors that lead to burnout. According to Leiter and Maslach (1988), unpleasant contacts with supervisors were associated with all three aspects of burnout. Their research showed that stressful interactions with supervisors lead to emotional exhaustion that causes depersonalization, which in turn leads to diminished feelings of personal accomplishment. However, little research has focused on the relationship between transformational leadership style of supervisors and burnout dimensions, and the empirical evidence is inconclusive. One possible reason for the inconclusive evidence is that previous literature overlooks a psychological mechanism that may be a powerful mediator to account for the relationship. In addition, very few studies have investigated the effect of transformational leadership style of supervisors on burnout among special education teachers. The purpose of this paper was to fill the gap by examining the relationship between transformational leadership style of supervisors and teacher burnout in special education while accounting for the mediating role of teachers calling. Literature Review Transformational Leadership and Job Burnout Transformational leadership. Transformational leadership theory is central to understanding the relationship between transformational leadership style of supervisors and the levels of burnout among special education teachers in this study. According to Fry (2003), transformational leadership is an intrinsically based motivational process whereby leaders engage followers to create a connection that raises the level effort and moral aspiration in both (p. 702). Northouse (2004) proposed transformational leadership refers to the process whereby an individual engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower (p. 170). Transformational leaders inspire followers to achieve positive outcomes by giving meaning to their work and understanding their personal needs (Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). The transformational leadership theory identifies four behaviors such as inspirational motivation, idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration that motivate followers intrinsically to give their best efforts and change their attitudes toward their work (Bass, 1999). Bass described idealized influence as shown by leaders whose behaviors can serve as an example to be emulated by followers and encourage followers to perform their best (Bass, Avolio, Jung, Berson, 2003). Furthermore, transformational leaders provide one with a sense of making a difference through service to others by emphasizing the importance of purpose, commitment, and the ethical consequences of decisions. Such leaders are admired as role models; they generate pride, loyalty, confidence, and alignment around a shared purpose (Bass, 1997, p. 133). Bass (1997) described that inspirational motivation is displayed by leaders who articulate an appealing vision of the future, challenge followers with high standards, talk optimistically and with enthusiasm, and provide encouragement and meaning for what needs to be done (p. 133). In doing so, transformational leaders lift up the efforts and work morale of their followers through enhancing the sense of calling, which in turn help improve individual productivities and organizational outcomes. Transformational leaders empower their followers by developing them into high involvement individuals (Bass, 1999, p. 9) and followers will transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization (Bass, 1985, p. 15). Individualized consideration is described as leaders [who] deal with others as individuals; consider their individual needs, abilities and aspirations; listen attentively; further their development; advise; teach; and coach (Bass, 1997, p. 133). Transformational leaders pay attention to followers needs and support and coach their growth through individualized consideration. The leaders can help followers analyze their work-related problems and seek possible solutions. As a consequence, the transformational leadership helps prevent the feeling of being strained (i.e., emotional exhaustion) or distancing themselves from coworkers and students (i.e., depersonalization), and increase the assessment of their personal accomplishment. Intellectual stimulation is demonstrated when leaders [who] question old assumptions, traditions, and beliefs; stimulate in others new perspectives and ways of doing things; and encourage the expression of ideas and reasons (Bass, 1997, p. 133). Transformational leaders stimulate followers to be innovative and creative in approaching old situations in new ways through intellectual stimulation (Bass et al., 2003). This transformational behavior lessens the burnout symptoms such as cynicism and negativism and a tendency to be rigid, and inflexible in thinking (Freudenberger, 1977). These four transformational leadership behaviors can ease followers the feelings of emotional depletion and loss of motivation and commitment. Transformational leadership and burnout. Research is mixed on the relationship between leadership styles and burnout. Seltzer, Numerof, and Bass (1989) showed that transformational leadership style helped reduce burnout, while management-by-exception leadership did the opposite in a sample of employed MBA students. Corrigan, Diwan, Campion, and Rashid (2002) found that transformational leadership had a negative relationship with burnout among mental health professionals. However, Stordeur, Dhoore, and Vandenbergh (2001) contended that transformational leadership and contingent reward had no relationship with emotional exhaustion among hospital nursing staff. Hetland, Sandal, and Johnsen (2007) found that transformational leadership was not related to emotional exhaustion, and transactional leadership had no relationship with any of the three dimensions of burnout. Existing literature indicated a need for further study of the mechanism through which transformational leadership had an impact on burnout, particularly in the school setting (Gill, Flaschner, Shachar, 2006; Griffith, 2004; Hetland et al., 2007). Calling and Burnout Calling. Calling, as defined by Fry (2003) is the experience of transcendence or how one makes a difference through service to others and, in doing so, derives meaning and purpose in life (p. 703). Fry posits that calling is a critical part of workplace spiritual well-being that provides one a sense of making a difference and therefore that ones life has meaning (p. 714). Followers who experience a sense of calling are more committed to their organization and more productive in their workplace. Markow and Klenke (2005) defined calling as work performed out of a strong sense of inner direction (p. 12). Calling is often described as something that pertains to careers that an individual sees as promoting the greater good or being meaningful to society (Duffy Sedlacek, 2007). Baumeister (1991) discussed the job-career-calling concept in Meanings of Life. Baumeister stated that those who view work as a job perform tasks solely to obtain things that they want. He also stated that this att itude is often prevalent among lower classes, who tend to be people with less education. In contrast, a person with a calling feels compelled to perform a kind of work, whether it is from a higher calling (as is often stated in association with religion) or a calling to meet a societal need (for example, higher military enlistment rates after Pearl Harbor). A calling might also come from an individuals inner sense of having a special talent or gift. A calling satisfies the need for being valuable to others and society. A calling engenders a great deal of personal meaning, linking a vocation and an individuals value base. According to Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, and Tipton (2008), a calling is when work becomes inseparable from the individuals life and character. The person works for the fulfillment that doing the work brings to the individual. A calling links a person to the larger community, and the person is making a contribution to the entire community. In Fry, Nisiewicz, Vitucci, and Cedillo (2007) study, calling can be enhanced by giving employees recognition can do this, along with giving them a sense of worth through service and a positive attitude (p. 20). Transformational leadership and calling. Transformational leadership is a motivation-based theory of how to move the organization toward its desired future. Transformational leaders motivate followers by raising their levels of consciousness about the importance of goals (Northouse, 2004). The most important role that the transformational leader plays is to paint a vision of a desired future state and communicate it in a way that causes followers to believe and have faith in the vision of organizational transformation to make the pain of change worth the effort (Fry, 2003, p. 702). A literature review revealed that the vision exhibited by spiritual leaders is predictive of ones sense of calling (Fry, 2003; Fry et al., 2007; Fry, Vitucci, Cedillo, 2005; Malone Fry, 2003). Fry (2003) suggested creating a compelling vision that has a broad appeal to key stakeholders, defines the destination and journey, reflects high ideals, encourages hope/faith, and establishes a standard of excellence provides followers with a sense of calling that motivates them to believe that they make a difference to other people (p. 695). A transformational leader who also possesses these qualities develops a vision and communicates it effectively through exemplary leadership behaviors such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation to their followers. Consequently, followers have hope and derive meaning and purpose in their experiences. For example, Fry (2003) explained that the vision displayed by a spiritual leader incl udes establishing a standard of excellence which builds followers confidence and trust in leaders. As mentioned earlier, this behavior is a characteristic of idealized influence. Transformational leadership moves followers beyond immediate self-interests to a shared vision and mission in the organization through idealized influence. The vision also vividly portray a journey that, when undertaken, will give me a sense of calling, of ones life having meaning and making a difference (Fry, 2003, p. 718). This quality is a characteristic of inspirational motivation that awakens intrinsic motivation of followers (Boerner et al., 2007). According to Bass (1999), followers under transformational leaders are generally more self-assured and find more meaning in their work. Consequently, teachers will find personal meaning in their work or feel called to their work. Coladarci (1992) posited that teaching is viewed as a profession with high initial commitment and is a calling for many entering the profession. Teachers who find personal meaning in their work or feel called to their work have a deep commitment to their profession (Hakanen et al., 2006). The great value they find in teaching and the feeling that they are helping others and working toward the greater good of society may reduce the feelings of strain and distancing of themselves from the students (i.e., depersonalization), and raise the evaluations of their personal accomplishment. Fry proposed a causal framework that the followers sense of calling is predictive of the organizational outcomes, such as commitment and productivity. Based on the theory of calling, the present study hypothesizes that teachers who have a high level of calling will experience low emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and high personal accomplishment. Mediating effect of calling. Though existing literature indicated a direct effect of transformational leadership on levels of burnout, this study proposes that the linkage between transformational leadership and burnout may be indirect, or intervened by the sense of calling. According to Fry (2003), the followers sense of calling mediated the relationship between the vision exhibited by a spiritual leader and the organizational outcomes, such as commitment and productivity. Fry et al. (2005) examined a newly formed Apache Longbow helicopter attack squadron and found strong empirical evidence that calling is a mediator between the qualities of spiritual leadership and organizational outcomes, such as loyalty and productivity. Followers who have a higher sense of calling are more committed to their organizations and more productive. Malone and Fry (2003) conducted a longitudinal field study of elemental schools and found that spiritual leadership had a significant impact on organizatio nal commitment and unit productivity mediated by the sense of calling. In Markow and Klenkes (2005) study, calling mediates the relationship between personal meaning and organizational commitment. Fry et al.s (2007) study of a municipal government revealed that ones sense of calling is a mediator of the relationship between the vision of a leader and organizational commitment and productivity. Fry, Hannah, Noel, and Walumbwa (2011) found that organizational commitment and unit performance were fully mediated by the sense of calling by studying a sample of cadets at the United States Military Academy. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that transformational leaders exert their effects on job burnout among special educators through the sense of calling. Given that teaching is a field where many express a sense of calling, the extent that calling accounts for the relation between transformational leadership and burnout among special educators needs to be explored. One of the most powerful influences that transformational leaders have on followers is to create a compelling vision that provides one with a sense of calling through service to others, and therefore find meaning and purpose in life. Transformational leadership fosters a positive work attitude and provides followers with a sense of meaning in their work, which in turn boosts their intrinsic motivation and energy and enables them to perform their best. Control Variables and Burnout Studies on demographic variables, i.e., gender, age, and race, and their relation to burnout have shown differing outcomes. Maslach (1982) stated that women tended to experience more emotional exhaustion, yet men are more likely to exhibit depersonalization behaviors. Brewer and McMahan (2004) also reported that women were more prone to job stress and burnout than men. However, Maslach and Jackson (1981) reported no relationship between gender and burnout. Several studies have associated burnout with age, with burnout usually affecting the younger employees (Brewer McMahan, 2004; Maslach Jackson, 1981; Russell et al., 1987). No findings have supported a difference in burnout among ethnic groups (Brewer McMahan, 2004; Maslach, 1982). In Kilgore and Griffins (1998) study, they found less experienced special educators had more burnout. Method Hypotheses Based on the above discussion, the following hypotheses were formulated for testing the mediating effect of calling on the relationship between transformational leadership and burnout of special educators: H1: Transformational leadership is negatively related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and is positively related to personal accomplishment among special educators. H10: Transformational leadership is not negatively related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and is not positively related to personal accomplishment among special educators. H2: Transformational leadership is positively related to the calling. H20: Transformational leadership is not positively related to the calling. H3: Calling is negatively related to special educators emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and is positively related to personal accomplishment. H30: Calling is not negatively related to special educators emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and is not positively related to personal accomplishment. H4: Calling mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and each of the three dimensions of burnout. H40: Calling does not mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and any of the three dimensions of burnout. Participants and Data Collection The sample in the study consisted of special education teachers who exclusively teach special education students in Maryland non-public and public separate day schools in Anne Arundel County. Separate day schools refer to those that enroll students between six and 21 years old who spend greater than 50% of the school day in a separate day facility that does not serve students without disabilities (Maryland State Department of Education, 2010). These schools are primarily self-contained facilities, not residential facilities.  The subjects were recruited through the MANSEF (Maryland Association of Nonpublic Special Education Facilities) network of non-public private special education schools as well as public separate day schools in Anne Arundel County. This population of teachers works with students with disabilities that preclude them from receiving education services in regular education classrooms within public schools. Initial contact was made through the MANSEF director and th e Director of Special Education of Anne Arundel County. Further contact was made with the educational directors of these schools to discuss the proposed study. The directors were informed of all of the information that would be required of the teachers (e.g., signature on Informed Consent, a short demographic questionnaire, the Maslach Burnout Inventory for Teachers, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, and the Calling Scale). Once the directors agreed to have the study conducted in their schools, the survey packets were disseminated to the directors for distribution to the teachers. Each packet had a cover letter that provides an introduction of the research project and invites teachers to participate in the study. Teachers were asked to sign the Informed Consent prior to their participation of the study. Stamped addressed envelopes were provided in each packet for teachers to return their completed surveys. Teachers who declined to participate or partially complete the survey s were not included in the study. Each of the surveys was distributed and collected in the same manner to ensure consistency in data collection. According to Gall, Gall, and Borg (2003), consistency in data collection procedures is essential for reliability. It was estimated that it would take approximately twenty minutes to complete these three measurements and the short demographic questionnaire. To ensure confidentiality, all questionnaires were completed anonymously, and only a coding number rather than a name was used to designate each respondent. No other personal identification information such as social security numbers, telephone numbers, and addresses were solicited on these questionnaires. All survey forms were locked up in a safe place. The size of the population was estimated at 700 non-public special educators in MANSEF schools and an additional 100 special educators in Anne Arundel County separate day schools. That makes the total estimated population of 800 special educators. Although all of the directors granted permission for the survey to be administered in her or his school, actual teacher participation was voluntary. As a result, a total of 256 teachers from 35 MANSEF schools (n = 250) and two Anne Arundel County separate day schools (n = 6) returned their completed surveys anonymously, which yielded a 32% response rate of the estimated population. Measurements Maslach burnout inventory for teachers. The construct of teacher burnout was measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory for Teachers (MBI Form Ed: Maslach, Jackson, Schwab, 1986). The MBI consists of 22 statements regarding attitudes and feelings about work (Maslach Jackson, 1981). There are nine items relating to emotional exhaustion, five items relating to depersonalization, and eight items relating to personal accomplishment (Maslach Jackson, 1981). The participants responded to the statements based on a 7-point frequency scale (0 = never, 6 = every day). Examples of statements included in the survey include I feel emotionally drained from work and I feel very energetic (Maslach et al., 1986). The MBI produces three areas of scores: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment (Leiter Maslach, 1988). As discussed earlier, these factors have been identified as major indicators of burnout and the MBI has been used extensively in studies examining burnout ( Byrne, 1993; Fore et al., 2002; Gill et al., 2006; Hakanen et al., 2006; Leiter Maslach, 1988; van Dick Wagner, 2001). Maslach and Jackson (1981) reported that the reliability of the subscales range from .71 to .90 using Cronbachs coefficient alpha. The test-retest reliability ranges from .53 to .89 (Maslach Jackson, 1981). Multifactor leadership questionnaire. The construct of transformational leadership was measured by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X-Short) developed by Avolio, Bass, and Jung (1999). The subordinates rated their leaders on 45 leadership items on a 5-point frequency scale (0 = never, 4 = frequently if not always). The MLQ is comprised of nine subscales, which assess a full range of leadership styles such as transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leaderships. Although measured, the constructs of transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors were not included in the regression analyses as the preliminary analysis did not show a correlation between these two leadership styles and job burnout. According to de Vaus (2001), a correlation between two variables is a pre-requisite for establishing a causal relationship (p. 179). The five subscales used to identify transformational leadership style are: (1) idealized attributes, (2) idealized behaviors, (3) inspirational motivation, (4) intellectual stimulation, and (5) individualized consideration (Bass et al., 2003). For the subscale idealized attributes, an example item is (my supervisor) goes beyond self-interest for the good of the group. An example item pertaining to the subscale idealized behaviors is (my supervisor) specifies the importance of having a strong sense of purpose. An example item that measures the subscale inspirational motivation is (my supervisor) articulates a compelling vision of the future. The subscale intellectual stimulation includes items such as (my supervisor) seeks differing perspectives when solving problems. An example item for the individualized considerations subscale is (my supervisor) spends time teaching and coaching. The supervisor received a score on each of the five subscales, and together, those allowed for describi ng how frequently he or she engaged in transformational leadership behaviors. For example, high scoring supervisors displayed transformational leadership behaviors more frequently than those low scorers. Bass and Avolio (2000) reported reliabilities of the subscales ranging from .74 to .91 based on Cronbachs coefficient alpha. Calling. The construct of calling was measured by the Calling Scale developed by Markow and Klenke (2005) based on Baumeisters (1991) work. Respondents provided ratings on twelve items that assess three subscales such as job, calling, and career on a seven point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 7 = a great deal). As discussed earlier, the major purpose of this study is to examine the mediating role of teachers calling on the relationship between transformational leadership and job burnout, therefore, only the calling subscale was included in the analysis. The subscale of calling was measured by six items, such as I feel that I must do the work I do it is part of who I am and the work that I do expresses truths and values that I believe are important (Markow Klenke, 2005). Markow and Klenke reported that the scale demonstrated an internal consistency reliability of .88. Control variables. Teachers were asked to fill out a short demographic questionnaire. It included items asking about gender, age, and years in teaching. There was also a question asking whether the teacher was a public or non-public employee. Based on the research, demographic variables do not have a consistent relationship with burnout. Data Analysis Data were analyzed using one SPSS file combining all instruments to examine the effects of transformational leadership and calling on job burnout among special education teachers. Descriptive statistics were produced to summarize the demographic data as well as survey measurements in this study. Pearson Product-Moment Coefficients were also computed to determine the correlation among study variables. To determine whether transformational leadership has an indirect effect mediated by calling on the various dimensions of teachers burnout, a mediation model was tested (Baron Kenny, 1986). A mediation model is to identify the mechanism through which an independent variable accounts for the variation of a dependent variable. To clarify the meaning of mediation, a path diagram was used to describe the relationship among independent variable, mediator, and dependent variable. Panels A and B in Figure 1 illustrated the designated paths of a direct effect and a total effect, where transformational leadership is the predictor variable, burnout is the outcome variable, calling is the mediating variable. a is the pathway from transformational leadership to calling, b is the pathway from calling to burnout, c (Panel A) is the direct effect of transformational leadership on burnout, controlling for the effect of the mediator, calling, and c (Panel B) is the total effect of transformational le adership, without controlling for the effect of the mediator. R2 was reported to measure the faction of the total variance explained by the model. To get over the overestimation problem of R2, adjusted R2 was also reported to measure the variability in the outcome that the model explains in the population rather than the sample (Tabachnick Fidell, 2007). This study conducted two methods to examine the extent to which calling accounts for the relationship between transformational leadership and burnout. First, this study followed the four-step procedure recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986) to assess the mediation hypothesis of calling. Second, this study performed a more statistically rigorous bootstrapping method to examine the mediating effect of calling on the relationship between transformational leadership and job burnout. Bootstrapping is a nonparametric approach to effect-size estimation and hypothesis testing that makes no assumptions about the shape of the distributions o

A Miracle from God :: Religion Jesus Christianity

A Miracle from God A complete wreck, I called out to God to let my mother live. I didn’t know what else I could do. I actually tried to bargain with God, that I would devote my life to Him, if only He would save her life. Understand that my dad was a complete atheist his whole life, until about a month before her problems began. He met a Christian at work who wasn’t your basic â€Å"ill-informed Christian,† that he usually ran across his whole life. My dad started reading The Bible all the time lately and his friend and my dad, one night said a prayer of healing over my mother. The next morning she woke up and she felt no pain, no skipping, no nausea, she felt great! Just to add a little note, she still hasn’t had a problem to this day. I knew it was a miracle from God; there is absolutely no other explanation! I always â€Å"believed† there was a god for as long as I can remember. I was a â€Å"Christian,† who believed in God, then went out and lived my life the opposite of a godly way. I needed a new direction and to change my life. I will never be the same person I once was. Life, in general, is so much more meaning to me now. No one can be perfect, but through Jesus he can shape us to be more like himself. God’s will is at work in my life and I thank God so much for all the joy he has given me. I don’t know where I would be if it wasn’t for Jesus. I would still have many more problems that I would have to face everyday. Not only my problems, but just the sole fact of feeling like there is something missing. We where created in God’s image, and while even â€Å"the best among us,† still sins, we know that we can call upon The Lord to be forgiven.

Essays --

The populist and nationalist ideology of the Iranian Islamic revolution was attributed to the perception of a plague that has alienated Muslims from their roots and identity, and this plague was the Western culture. Western culture was a plague that must be fought and expelled as it influenced many young Iranians and deviate from the interpretation of Islam. To bring back the loyalty and faith to Islam as the one true way of awakening the oppressed and liberating the Third World from colonialism is a great manifestation of revolt and declaration. Ayatollah Khomeini dominated the revolution itself declaring that Shia Islam dictated for revolt and martyrdom against injustice and tyranny. He advocated for Muslims to reject the influence of the Soviet and American superpowers in Iran and developed the ideology that Muslims required guardianship. The Islamic jurists must rule to protect Islam from innovation and deviation by following the traditional sharia law and prevent poverty, injustice, and the deprivation of Muslim land by foreign non-believers. The establishment of and the obedience to the Islamic government were considered to be an actual obedience to God that was more necessary than prayer and fasting. The universal principle of true Islam was that the world only needed and deserved a just and true government which was the Islamic government. This revolutionary vision and ideology were supported by Khomeini and a great number of core supporters who were determined to establish a government ruled by Islamic clerics and defeated opposition from the different factions. America’s deep involvement in Iran for many years before the revolution was only for personal gain through government influence and through control of I... ...regime’s desire to recreate man was carried out with ideas of order and justice which revealed the true nature of its devastating power. Revolutionary Islamic justice is founded on the rejection of the concept of the individual as a juridical and moral person and was greatly manifested in the courts of the Islamic Republic as it rejected due process. Due process considers man as an autonomous and a fallible being and the denial of this logic is denial of due process. Khomeini’s regime saw the termination of the existence of many who resisted its ideology and protesting in the name of free will and freedom of conscience. It is therefore concluded that the Islamic rebels against God’s will by denying the existence of the very human beings He created; that the Revolutionary Islamist justice is ignorant of the true spirit of the traditional Muslim jurisprudence.

Unit Examination

The basic types of tissue in the human body are a. Cell, organ, and organ system. B. Sight, smell, and hearing. C. Thyroid, trachea, adenoid, and bronchus. D. Muscle, nervous, connective, and epithelial. 2. Which system regulates and controls growth, development, and metabolism? A. Endocrine system b. Lymphatic system c. Integument system d. Skeletal system 3. Which of the following is the correct order from simplest to most complex for the levels of organization in the human body? A. Organ systems, tissues, organs, cells b. C. D. Cells, tissues, organs, organ systemsOrgan systems, organs, tissues, cells Cells, organs, organ systems, tissues 4. The brain, lungs, testes, and small intestine are each examples of a. A nerve. An organ. A tissue. An organ system. 5. Leers-Dandles syndrome Is a disease that affects the structure and support systems of the body. Which type of tissue does the disease target? A. Epithelial a. Connective Nerve Muscle 6. The Internal environment off house Is to thermostat as the human body Is to skin. Pancreas. Liver. Hypothalamus. Order in which they occur? 1) The liver removes glucose from the blood. 2) The body absorbs food molecules after eating. As the body uses glucose for energy, the liver releases stored glucose into the blood. 4) The levels of glucose in the blood rise. B. 4,132 8. An imbalance in blood glucose levels causes which of the following diseases? A. Cancer b. Parkinson disease c. Diabetes d. AIDS 9. Which organ maintains homeostasis by regulating the amount of sugar in the blood? A. Stomach b. Liver d. Heart 10. Which of the following statements is not true about the process of sweating? A. Sweating is more likely to occur on hot days than cool days. B. Sweating is likely to occur after strenuous exercise. C. Evaporation of sweat warms the body. Excessive sweating can lead to dehydration. 1 1 . Why do you sometimes shiver when you're cold? A. The lack of heat causes your skin to tighten and become stiff. B. It causes b lood to rush to the surface of your skin and release heat. C. Your muscles are shaking off excess water to release heat. D. Your muscles are contracting in order to release heat. 12. The energy available in food can be measured in a lab by a. Determining its mass. Burning the food to release heat. C. Analyzing its chemical structure. Calculating its volume. 13. A car is to gasoline as your body is to your stomach. Our kidneys. C. DOD. Enzymes. 14. A calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of the body by 10 Celsius. Raise the temperature of 1 g of fat by 10 Celsius. C. Raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 10 Celsius. Raise the temperature of 1 gallon of water by 10 Celsius. 15. An example of foods high in fiber is whole grain bread. Butter. . Eggs. Fish. 16. Starches are to simple sugars as proteins are to fatty acids. Double bonds. C. Amino acids. 17. What makes essential fatty acids and essential amino acids different from ones that aren't essential? A.E ssential nutrients are more important than others, so he body needs more of them. B. Nutrients that are essential cannot be made by the body, so they must be obtained from food. C. Brain cells need only the essential nutrients, so they are important for clear thinking. D. All essential nutrients are water-soluble, so they all must be replaced every day. 18. Which of the following foods are a good source of water-soluble vitamins? Eggs Dairy products . Vegetable oils Citrus fruits 19. A doctor tells his patient that his thyroid hormone levels are low. Which of these foods should the patient increase in his diet? A.Poultry and grains b. Seafood . Vegetables d. Bread and cereal 20. Which of the following foods is a major source of vitamin D? A. Yogurt, and cheese b. Leafy green vegetables c. Whole grains d. Fruit Milk, percent of Calories from fat, of which only 20 percent should be from unsaturated fats. B. 30 percent of Calories from unsaturated fat, in addition to 10 percent from sa turated fats. C. 50 percent of Calories from saturated fats. D. 30 percent of Calories from fat, of which only 7 percent should be from saturated fats and 1 percent from trans fats. 22. About how many collieries does the average teenager need per day? 100 to 200 b. 500t0600 c. 2200 to 2800 d. 10,000 23. When a doctor suggests following a diet low in saturated fats, which of these products is preferred when cooking? A. Oils with single bonds between their carbon atoms b. Oils with double bonds between their carbon atoms c. Animal fats, which are solid at room temperature d. Butter, which is solid at room temperature Figure 30-1 24. Look at Figure 30-1 . In which structure is water extracted from digested food? A. B 25. Which structure in Figure 30-1 uses muscle contractions to produce a churning motion that breaks up food? A.C ermines that regulate blood sugar levels b. Producing enzymes that break down carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids c. Producing bile Producing so dium bicarbonate, a base that neutralizes stomach acid 27. Where does the process of chemical digestion begin? Esophagi . Small intestine Mouth 28. Through which structure do wastes pass into the rectum? A. Large intestine Villous Duodenum 29. What â€Å"muscular tube† carries food between the pharynx and the stomach? Small intestine Epiglottis . Esophagi its description? A. Absorption; the physical and chemical breakdown of food into small molecules. B.Ingestion; the process of getting food into the opening of the digestive tract. C. Elimination; the movement of small molecules from the digestive tract into the blood. D. Digestion; undigested materials pass out of the body. 31. What enzyme found in saliva breaks chemical bonds in starches forming sugars? A. Amylase Chem.. Pepsin Hydrochloric acid 32. What does mechanical digestion in the stomach involve? Absorption of nutrients by villa Pepsin and bile . Smooth muscle contractions Bile and pancreatic fluid 33. After complex organic molecules have been absorbed in the small intestine, what materials are left behind? Protein and carbohydrates b. Water and cellulose c. Fats and starches d. Chem.. And bolus Figure 30-2 34. Look at Figure 30-2. Filtered blood leaves the kidney and returns to circulation through the a. Renal artery. B. Renal vein. C. Urinary bladder. D. Urethra. 35. Which structure in Figure 30-2 removes excess water, urea and metabolic waste from the blood? A. Kidney b. Renal vein c. Urinary bladder d. Router down nutrients. Remove wastes. C. Absorb nutrients. Prevent infection. 37. Which of the following is not part of a neoprene? Urethra Loop of Henley . Slumberous Bowman's capsule 38.In the kidneys, both useful substances and wastes are removed from the blood by a. Reapportion. Excretion. C. Dialysis. Filtration. 39. What role does skin play in the excretory system? Secretes excess water as sweat Protects against pathogens . Absorbs water through osmosis Facilitates gas exchange 40. The activity of the kidneys is controlled by hormones and by the a. Of nutrients. B. Volume of filtrate. C. Composition of the blood. D. Composition of the urine. Volume 41. Which structure in the kidneys' neoprene is mainly responsible for the filtration of the blood? A. Collecting duct b. Loop of Henley c.Slumberous . Bowman's capsule 42. What percentage of the filtrate's water that enters Bowman's capsule is reabsorbed into the blood? A. 100 percent b. 99 percent c. 50 percent d. Less than 25 percent treatments three times a week. What does the process of dialysis do? A. Urine to the urinary bladder b. Pumps blood throughout the body c. Filters waste from the blood d. Forces water into cells and tissues by osmosis Carries 44. A lab technician performs a urine analysis and notes the patient should be tested for diabetes. What was present in the urine sample? A. Low levels of protein b. Crystallized calcium deposits.

From Classical Hollywood to New Hollywood Essay

The movies Rebel Without a Cause and Bonnie and Clyde offer two prime examples of the difference between â€Å"Old Hollywood† and â€Å"New Hollywood. † Rebel Without a Cause was released in 1958 and, although it pushed the envelope for movies at that time, it still was very much a depiction of â€Å"Old Hollywood. † Bonnie and Clyde released in 1967 was one of the first films of â€Å"New Hollywood† in that its style, acting and storyline moved it into a new generation of filmmaking. In this paper I will analyze these two films and contrast their different styles and also show how Bonnie and Clyde set a new standard in the filmmaking industry. I will also look at readings from class and draw from them in order to back up my discussion. Rebel Without a Cause (Old Hollywood) â€Å"If I had one day when I didn’t have to be all confused and I didn’t have to feel that I was ashamed of everything. If I felt that I belonged someplace. You know? † (Rebel Without a Cause, 1958). This quote was from the protagonist Jim Stark who is a 17 year old whose parents just moved to Los Angeles. His parent’s fight often in front of him and his mother is very domineering toward his father and Jim doesn’t like this. He feels his dad is not man enough to stand up for himself and he sees him as being week. Even though his father loves him a lot and shows him affection, Jim wishes he was more of a man. Throughout the movie he tries to tell him that he needs to just stand up for himself and set a good example for his son, but his father doesn’t get it. He’s just too used to being bullied around by his mother. Jim even goes so far as to say that he never wants to end up like his father. This was just one of the many films during the fifties that depicted the youth of America as being insubordinate and not having the same moral makeup as past generations. This film also looks at parenting styles and how they affect the youth at that time. The main character Jim continuously gets into trouble as a result of his confusion and detachment from his parents. The style in which the film was made goes right along with what was being done in that era. The acting, at times, was very over dramatic and the dialog was sparse and very â€Å"clean†. The high school kids were rebellious and got into fights, but there is very little blood and the discourse was very civil. Up until the fifties, the movie business had grown exponentially and was dominated by about eight different studios located in Los Angeles. Small budget films were being made at the time but wouldn’t make money simply because the â€Å"Giants† had all the talent and money to produce large-scale productions. At that time it was also accepted that the larger the amount of money put into a film, the more it would make. It was published to the public amounts that were invested into the films (Maltby, 113 – 125). In the postwar period, the foreign market became an even more important source of income to Hollywood. By the early 1960’s foreign sales generated about half of the majors’ revenues†¦but instead of bringing European stars to Hollywood, American production migrated abroad (Maltby, 127). So part of â€Å"New Hollywood† was it’s presence abroad and actually filming and producing films in foreign nations. However, not many were ready for the movie that, in essence, changed how filmmaking was done. Bonnie and Clyde (New Hollywood) â€Å"This here’s Miss Bonnie Parker. I’m Clyde Barrow. We rob banks. † (Bonnie and Clyde, 1967). Directly influenced by the â€Å"French New Wave† style of cinematography, Bonnie and Clyde broke all of the rules associated with â€Å"Old Hollywood†. The film portrayed sex and violence on a graphic level not really ever seen before. And, although, the movie started out as sort of a comedy, it quickly turned dark as the violence began. Many different societal taboos were broken regarding sex and violence. This new style also included a more â€Å"real† form of filming in that it was more graphic and the filming itself was more choppy. The comedic way that it depicted violence along with its quickly shifting tone toward the dark side of violence was something new at the time. Since the production of Bonnie and Clyde many others followed suit in its overt display of sex and violence in the movies. â€Å"The impression created is one of restlessness, edginess and a palpable sense of sexual hunger and longing† (King, 12). Clyde is a thief that meets up with Bonnie while he’s trying to steal her mother’s car. She falls in love with him and they go on a bank-robbing spree together. As they get better at what they do, the level of violence is escalated and the amount of gore depicted in the film rises. Sexual overtones are constant and this entire concept of glorifying sex and violence on film was brand new at the time. During the late fifties and sixties, times were tumultuous in America and Hollywood cinema reflected that. Making connections between Hollywood movies and the times in which they appear is not as straightforward a business as it might often appear. Sometimes, however, the case seems more clear-cut; the times are such that they appear to impose themselves forcefully on our consciousness, unmistakably invading the terrain of popular entertainment such as Hollywood cinema (King, 14). Because of social events and tragedies that were taking place in that era such as the Kennedy assassinations, the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, people were longing for films that helped express how they were feeling. Conclusion Both movies were epic pictures that were preserved in the United States Library of Congress’s National Film Registry and even though their release dates were only twelve years apart, watching them makes you feel as if they were made in completely different eras – which, in fact, they were. Rebel Without a Cause, arguably James Dean’s best film, sort of represents the innocence of America at that time. You feel as if you are watching something that would be rated G today, or would be on the Disney Channel. Bonnie and Clyde represented the direction that America was moving in. People might not have been ready for it at the time, however, they went to the theaters in drones to see it. It was the start of a brand new era in filmmaking and stands to be one of the founders, if not the founder, of New Hollywood today. Works Cited Bonnie and Clyde: Memorable Quotes. (1967). Retrieved from http://www. imdb. com/title/tt0061418/quotes King, G. (2002). New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction. New York: I. B. Tauris & Co Ltd. Maltby, R. (1995). Hollywood Cinema. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Rebel Without a Cause: Memorable Quotes. (1955). Retrieved fromhttp://www. imdb. com/title/tt0048545/quotes

Gender Dysphori Misunderstood. - 1779 Words

Gender Dysphoria: Misunderstood Haley Harrison Ethics 212: Professor Cockerham Research/Critical Thinking Essay December 5, 2015 Gender Dysphoria is a name given to the condition of children who express a gender that is opposite of their biologically given gender. Children and teens who present and verbalize the desire to be of the opposite gender for at least six months are then diagnosed and treated medically. This issue is ethically controversial due to many parents, medical doctors, mental professionals, and myself believing that biological gender identification is not fully understood until puberty has taken place, noticing that children are exposed to transgender terminology and situations on the internet that are persuasive and confusing, and being concerned about the medications used to treat a disorder that can barely be explained and is misunderstood. Medications such as hormone blockers and opposite-sex hormones have become readily available to them without any long term testing. Not only should parents, doctors, professionals, and society be concerned about the safety of these medications, we shoul d be asking ourselves, is gender dysphoria even a medical condition that should be treated with drugs or is it a psychological disorder that should be treated with therapy? Gender Dysphoria is a condition in children and teens that the general population does not understand, however, after doing research I believe the definition of gender dysphoria is

A Interview With Abdulla Kamel - 850 Words

I started the interview with Abdulla Kamel, who is known as Tony, my wonderful spouse, as when he was in the backyard mowing the lawn, with the cigarette hanging on his lips, appearing much stressed out. About two months ago, Tony never needed to do any yard work. He does it now because he recently bought his first house. Being his wife, I occasionally find it is difficult to believe that my husband has changed drastically from an irresponsible young bachelor into a family man who trying to be better every day. This house is Tony’s motivation to work harder and save money. For example, he used to take the cars to the dealer for oil changes. However, in order to limit unnecessary cost, he will work on the cars himself for basic maintenance. He enjoys fixing or doing any work on cars because he just simply loves cars so much. Besides cars, Tony also loves sports; his all-time favorite football team is the Chicago Bears and he has been a big fan of the Bears since he was only six years old. Tony was born in 1979 in Vietnam, which was only four years after the Vietnam War ended. Tony’s father was lucky enough to work for the Embassy of the United States of America in Vietnam, so Tony’s family had a chance to emigrate to America in February 1984. During one of the big snow storm that was recorded in history, The Kamel’s family arrived in Albany Park, Chicago. Albany Park is the place where Tony’s family began their life in America. It was a poor